Run a mock round

Eviction decides what to remove when the cache is full or memory is constrained:

• LRU (least recently used): evicts the item not accessed for the longest time. A solid default for general workloads.
• LFU (least frequently used): evicts the item accessed least often. Better when popularity is stable, but slow to adapt when access patterns change and it can retain stale hot items.
• FIFO: evicts the oldest inserted item regardless of use. Simple but ignores access patterns.
• Random: cheap and surprisingly effective under some workloads, with no bookkeeping.
• TTL-based: expire by age, often combined with another policy.

redis: maxmemory-policy allkeys-lru | allkeys-lfu | volatile-ttl

Redis exposes these via maxmemory-policy and evicts when maxmemory is reached. Choose by access pattern: LRU for recency-heavy traffic, LFU for skewed stable popularity, and TTL for data with natural freshness. Whatever you pick, expect misses: the application must handle a cache miss correctly and cheaply.

A hot key is accessed so frequently that a single cache node or partition becomes a bottleneck. Keys are distributed by consistent hashing, but one key always maps to one shard, so it cannot be spread automatically.

Mitigations:

• Add a small local (in-process) cache for the hottest keys to absorb most reads before they reach the shared cache.
• Replicate the hot key across several shards by appending a random suffix and writing to N copies, then read from a random copy.
• Use read replicas and client-side load balancing to spread read traffic.
• Precompute and refresh the value in the background so it never expires under load.
• Shard the underlying data differently if a single logical key is genuinely too large.

hotkey:product:99:{0..9}  -> spread across 10 slots

Monitor per-key and per-shard metrics, not just cluster averages, because a hot key hides behind healthy aggregates. Also watch for large values and hot partitions in stream processing, which follow the same pattern.

Layer caches by distance from the caller and accept that each layer adds staleness and invalidation complexity.

Typical design:

• Edge/CDN: cache public and static responses close to users with long TTLs and purge by tag.
• Service-local in-process cache: very small, very short TTLs (seconds) for the hottest keys, giving sub-millisecond reads and absorbing hot keys.
• Shared distributed cache such as Redis: the main cross-instance cache with TTLs and explicit invalidation.
• Origin database: the source of truth, protected by the caches above.

client -> CDN -> local (1s) -> Redis (60s) -> DB

Rules: shorter TTLs and more aggressive invalidation as you move inward; namespace keys per environment and version; handle cache outages by falling back to the origin with protection such as circuit breakers; and add negative caching for known-missing keys. Because stale data can appear at several layers, define the acceptable staleness per data type and prefer deleting over updating. Measure hit ratio and latency per layer, and expect to tune TTLs continuously.

Invalidation is the hardest part of caching. Options, often combined:

• TTL expiry: every entry has a lifetime; simple and self-healing, but data can be stale until it expires. Use short TTLs for volatile data and longer for stable data.
• Explicit delete or update on write: after committing to the database, delete the cache key so the next read reloads it. Simpler and race-safer than updating in place.
• Versioned keys: include a version or content hash in the key so old entries become unreachable, then let them expire.
• Event-driven invalidation: publish a change event and have caches evict affected keys or tags.
• Cache tags or surrogate keys: group entries so a single purge clears a whole logical set.

await db.update(...);
await cache.del(`user:${id}`);

Prefer delete-on-write over update-on-write to avoid inconsistent overlapping writes, and always keep a TTL as a backstop in case an invalidation message is lost. Measure hit rate and staleness; invalidation bugs are subtle and usually appear under concurrency.

A content delivery network caches content on edge servers close to users. It serves static assets such as images, CSS, JavaScript and fonts, and can cache dynamic responses and API responses when headers permit.

Benefits: lower latency from geographic proximity, offloaded origin traffic, absorption of traffic spikes and DDoS mitigation, plus TLS termination at the edge.

Cache-Control: public, max-age=31536000, immutable
Cache-Control: s-maxage=60, stale-while-revalidate=30

Control behavior with Cache-Control (max-age for browsers, s-maxage for shared caches, private, no-store), ETag for revalidation, and Vary to prevent serving one user's response to another. Invalidate by purging URLs or using surrogate keys. A crucial warning: never cache authenticated or personalized responses in a shared cache unless the cache key includes the identity, or you will leak data across users.

Caching stores a copy of data in a faster or closer tier so future reads avoid the slower origin. It reduces latency, increases throughput, lowers load and cost on databases and external APIs, and improves availability during partial outages.

Common tiers: in-process memory (fastest, per instance), a shared cache such as Redis or Memcached, a CDN at the edge, and HTTP browser caches.

The costs are staleness, extra moving parts and consistency work. A cache is a copy, so you must decide acceptable staleness, an invalidation strategy, what to store, and what happens when the cache is empty or unavailable.

client -> CDN -> app cache (Redis) -> database

The key questions are always: what is the cache key, how long may data be stale, how is it invalidated, and can the system serve correctly when the cache fails? Caching is not free performance; it trades consistency and complexity for speed.

Three classic failure modes, often confused:

• Penetration: requests for keys that do not exist always miss the cache and hit the database. Attackers can exploit this with random ids. Mitigate by caching null or empty results for a short TTL, using a Bloom filter to reject impossible keys, or validating input.
• Breakdown: a single very hot key expires and many requests hit the database simultaneously. Mitigate with a mutex, logical expiry, or never-expiring hot keys refreshed in the background.
• Avalanche: many keys expire at the same moment, or the cache restarts and is empty, causing a flood to the backend. Mitigate with randomized TTLs, warming the cache, and using a highly available clustered cache.

penetration: non-existent key -> always misses
breakdown:   hot key expires   -> stampede
avalanche:   mass expiry/restart -> flood

Add circuit breakers and load shedding on the database so a cache incident degrades gracefully rather than taking the whole system down. Monitor miss rate and backend load together to detect these patterns.

HTTP caching lets browsers and proxies reuse responses. Cache-Control sets the policy:

• max-age=300: fresh for 300 seconds; no revalidation needed.
• s-maxage: overrides max-age for shared caches such as CDNs.
• private vs public: whether shared caches may store it. Never mark personalized responses public.
• no-store: do not cache at all; no-cache: store but always revalidate.
• stale-while-revalidate and immutable: serve stale while refreshing, or never revalidate a fingerprinted asset.

ETag enables conditional requests: the client sends If-None-Match, and the server replies 304 Not Modified with no body if unchanged, saving bandwidth.

ETag: "abc123"
If-None-Match: "abc123"  ->  304 Not Modified

Use content-hashed filenames with long immutable cache times for static assets, and short, revalidated caching for HTML and dynamic data. Vary correctly when responses depend on headers such as Accept-Encoding.

• Write-through: write to the cache and the database in the same operation, synchronously. The cache stays fresh and reads are fast, but writes are slower and every write also populates the cache, which can evict hot data.
• Write-behind (write-back): write to the cache and acknowledge, then flush to the database asynchronously. Writes are very fast and can be batched, but a crash before flush loses data, so it is used where durability can be relaxed.
• Write-around: write directly to the database and bypass the cache. This avoids polluting the cache with data that may not be read, but the next read pays a miss and the cache can serve stale values until TTL expiry.

write-through: app -> cache -> db (sync)
write-behind:  app -> cache ~~> db (async)
write-around:  app -> db (cache bypassed)

Most web systems use cache-aside reads plus write-through or write-around writes, with TTLs as a safety net. Choose based on durability requirements, write volume and how soon data must be visible.